<div class="info">
	<div id="top">
		<p><b>TERMS USED IN BIONOMENCLATURE:</b><br>
			<b>The naming of organisms (and plant communities)</b>		</p>
		<p><b><em><br>
		Including terms used in botanical, cultivated plant,  phylogenetic, phytosociological, prokaryote (bacteriological), virus, and  zoological nomenclature.</em></b>		</p>
		<p><b><em><br>
			Compiled by</em></b> <b>David L. Hawksworth</b><br>
			<em>Chair, IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature</em> (ICB)<br>
			<em>Departamento de  Biología Vegetal II, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid,  Plaza Ramón y Cajal, Madrid 28040, Spain</em> <em>and</em> <em>Department  of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK.</em></p>
		<p><em><br>
		E-mail:</em><a href="mailto:d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk">d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk</a></p>
<p><br>
	&copy; David L. Hawksworth 2010
</p>
<p>A PDF version of this book can be downloaded from  the GBIF website together with the Terms of Bionomenclature web application at <a href="http://www.gbif.org/communications/resources/print-and-online-resources/bionomenclature/" target="_blank">http://www.gbif.org/communications/resources/print-and-online-resources/bionomenclature/</a></p>
<br>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Abstract'>
		<p>
		<h1>Abstract</h1>
		<p>This is a glossary of over 2,100 terms used in biological nomenclature  - the naming of whole organisms of all kinds. It covers terms in use in the  current editions of the different internationally mandated and proposed  organismal <em>Codes</em>; i.e. those for botany (including mycology), cultivated  plants, prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria), virology, and zoology, as well as  the <em>Draft BioCode</em> and <em>PhyloCode</em>. Any abbreviations, latinizations  and synonyms are incorporated, as are terms which are either no longer  employed, are used outside the formal nomenclatural <em>Codes</em>, or are  otherwise likely to be encountered. As some of the terms used in the  classification of plant communities are identical to those of whole organisms,  terms used in phytosociological nomenclature are also included. The glossary  has been prepared with inputs from numerous nomenclatural specialists,  especially representatives of the different <em>Codes</em> serving on the  IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature. It is intended for use as  a reference work by all biologists, especially those involved with the  description or re-classification of organisms, as well as those investigating  the status and application of previously proposed names. </p>
		<p><b><br />
		Selected key words</b>: algae, animals, archaea, bacteria, BioCode,  biological nomenclature, botany, codes of nomenclature, cultivated plants, dictionary,  entomology, fungi, glossary, nomenclature, PhyloCode, phytosociology, plants, prokaryotes,  protists, viruses, zoology.</p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Introduction'>
		<p>
		<h1>Introduction</h1>
		<p>Terms used in discussions of, and in the procedures regulating, the  scientific naming of organisms often appear abstruse or unfamiliar to most  biologists. The associated language and jargon has developed exponentially  since Linnaeus endeavoured to codify procedures and terminology in the <em>Philosophia  Botanica</em> (1751). The situation has been exacerbated by biologists working  with different groups of organisms developing not only unique terms, but also  using identical ones but with different meanings. Today, the accumulated terms  present a major obstacle for biologists needing to know how to introduce new  scientific names, change positions in a classification, understand why a name  has been changed, or determine that which should be used for an organism  according to the appropriate sets of rules. In addition, confrontation with  unfamiliar and outdated terms can be a barrier to a taxonomist's correct  interpretation of the older literature that has to be tackled when undertaking  monographic or revisionary work. However, it is my hope that this listing will also  facilitate the understanding of nomenclatural discussions and procedures by  organismal biologists as a whole.<br />
			<br />
			The primary objective of the present compilation is to provide, in a  single reference work, definitions and explanations of terms for biologists of  all kinds working with, or on, the names or organisms. A secondary objective is  to discourage both the superfluous coining of new terms, and the use of  existing terms in different senses. As will be apparent from a perusal of the  entries, there is already an embarrassing number of cases of the same term  being used in disparate senses (e.g. genotype, morphotype). The equivalence of  selected terms employed in the different <em>Codes</em> is indicated in Table 1.<br />
			<br />
			I started compiling notes on terms used in botanical nomenclature in  the mid-1960s when as a student I found that some definitions were not always  easily located. My list grew, and a glossary of those relevant to mycology was  included in the <em>Mycologist's Handbook</em> (1974). I continued to make notes  as more were encountered for a putative second edition. In the mid-1980s, the  International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) identified a need for  increased co-operation between the authorities concerned with the nomenclature  of different groups of organisms. Then, at the 24th General Assembly  of IUBS in Amsterdam  in 1991, the Scientific Programme Committee reported that it would be  advantageous to produce a comprehensive glossary of biological nomenclature. To  that end, in November 1993 I circulated a first draft aiming to cover the five  principle Codes to several colleagues; the production of that draft was  facilitated by the glossary in Charles Jeffrey's <em>Biological Nomenclature</em> (1989). A second draft was prepared in March 1994, and critically annotated by  nominated representatives of the different <em>Codes</em> serving on the then  embryo IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB). Taking note  of the painstakingly prepared inputs received, <em>A Draft Glossary of Terms  used in Bionomenclature </em>was published by IUBS in July 1994; this had 1175  entries. This opened the draft to comment from the wider biological community,  and I continued to compile additions and corrections received, as well as to  incorporate updates and revisions necessitated by new editions of the <em>Codes</em> and the scrutiny of other publications. Yet a further draft was made available  to several colleagues for comment on the occasion of the International  Botanical Congress in Vienna  in July 2005, and at a meeting of the ICB in London in June 2009.<br />
			<br />
			Such a compilation can never be exhaustive, and it is being released  now as it has reached a stage where, hopefully, it will be of value to all  those concerned with the naming of whole organisms. However, awareness of the  possible deficiencies of the 1994 draft, led me to place a “health-warning” on the  back cover. The present work must also be used with caution, and while  representatives of the various <em>Codes</em> have assisted in the venture, it has no formal standing in biological  nomenclature.<br />
			<br />
			Users who come across omissions or misinterpretation, or encounter  alternative uses of already included terms, are encouraged to submit details to  me (<a href="mailto:d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk">d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk</a>)  so that they can be accommodated in any future edition.</p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Scope'>
		<p><h1>Scope</h1>
		<p>This compilation covers terms employed in the current editions of the  different internationally mandated and proposed organismal <em>Codes</em>; i.e.  those for botany (including mycology), cultivated plants, prokaryotes (archaea  and bacteria), virology, and zoology, as well as the <em>Draft BioCode</em> and <em>PhyloCode</em>.  Also incorporated are abbreviations, latinizations, and synonyms, as well as  the numerous terms which are either no longer employed, used outside the formal  nomenclatural <em>Codes</em>, or are otherwise likely to be encountered. As some  of the terms used in the classification of plant communities are identical to  that of whole organisms, terms used in phytosociological nomenclature are also  included – but not those of so-called Dynamic-Catenal Phytosociology which  includes landscape and other aspects.<br />
			<br />
			Where definitions are given in the principal <em>Codes</em>, in general,  the precise wording they employ is used. However, where the same term is used  in several and in identical senses, composites are provided. In order to  minimize the possibility of any misleading or obfuscating definitions being  introduced here, drafts have been circulated for comments and corrections to  nomenclatural specialists working on the different <em>Codes</em> at various  stages during its preparation. <br />
			<br />
			A few zoologists have been involved in coining spurious definitions for  additional kinds of &quot;types&quot; for amusement (e.g. mythicotype,  scoopotype, spiritotype); although many have not been used in serious  scientific contributions, they are nevertheless included for completeness as  they have appeared in print, and so might be encountered.<br />
			<br />
			Not included are terms relating to genomics, population genetics,  genecology, morphology, species and other systematic concepts, cytology, ecology,  geology, biogeography, geobotany, or bioclimatic zones – unless they are also  used in biological nomenclature or are potentially confusing.<br />
			Etymological derivations and the meanings of the scientific names  applied to organisms are not nomenclatural terms <em>per se</em>, and so are also  excluded. However, as the coining of new scientific names and understanding the  meaning and correct orthography of those proposed are important aspects of  nomenclatural work, a list of selected etymological reference works is  provided.</p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Acknowledgements'>
		<p><h1>Acknowledgements</h1>
		<p>Various colleagues  and correspondents generously, and often painstakingly, submitted information  on omitted terms, suggestions, and corrections to the various drafts of this  glossary prepared since 1993. In particular I wish to acknowledge my gratitude  to David A. Brown, William G. Chaloner, Walter Gams, Werner Greuter, Philip D.  Cantino, Daphne  G. Fautin, Kenneth E. Kinman,  Otto Krauss, John McNeill, Ellinor Michel, Michael A. Mayo, Alessandro Minelli,  Dan H. Nicolson, Daniel Sánchez-Mata, Peter H. A. Sneath, Brian J. Tindall, R.  Piers Trehane, and Philip K. Tubbs (deceased). Tod Stuessy kindly supplied a  copy of the typescript report on infraspecific categories prepared by Peter C.  Sylvester-Bradley for the Taxonomic Principles Committee of the Systematics  Association in 1952. I am especially grateful to my wife, Patricia E. J. Wiltshire-Hawksworth,  for her patience while this work was being finalized over Christmas and New Year,  and also for her constructive comments. However, I must stress that any errors  or misinterpretations are my personal responsibility.<br />
			<br />
			I also appreciate  the access to the libraries of the Linnean Society of London, the Natural  History Museum London, and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew afforded to me during  the preparation of this compilation.<br />
			<br />
			I am especially indebted  to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility Secretariat (GBIF), and  especially David Remsen, for providing the resources necessary to bring this  compilation to publication through Project 2009-ECAT-011. Anne Mette Nielsen (GBIF) skilfully prepared the work for publication. </p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='The Codes'>
		<p><h1>The Codes</h1>
		<p><strong><em>All organisms  (proposed; viruses excepted)</em></strong><br />
			Greuter W; Hawksworth DL; McNeill J; Mayo MA;  Minelli A; Sneath PHA; Tindall BJ; Trehane P; Tubbs P (eds) (1998) Draft  BioCode (1997): the prospective international rules for the scientific names of  organisms. <em>Taxon</em> <strong>47</strong>: 127-150.<br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Botany (including  mycology)</em></strong><br />
			McNeill J; Barrie FR; Burdet HM; Demoulin V;  Hawksworth DL; Marhold K; Nicolson DH; Prado J; Silva PC; Skog JE; Wiersema JH;  Turland NJ (eds) (2006) <em>International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna  Code) adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna,  Austria, July 2005</em>. [Regnum Vegetabile no. 146.] Ruggell: A.R.G. Ganter  Verlag. <br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Cultivated plants</em></strong> <br />
			Brickell CD, Baum BR; Hetterscheid WLA; Leslie  AC; McNeill J; Trehane P; Vrugtman F; Wiersema JH (eds) (2004) <em>International  Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants</em>. 7th edn. [Acta  Horticulturae no. 647; Regnum Vegetabile no. 144.] Leuven:  International Society for Horticultural Science.<br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Phylogenetic</em></strong><br />
			Cantino PD; de Queiroz K (2009) <em>PhyloCode:  A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature</em>. Version 4c. <a href="http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index/html">http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index/html</a>.  International Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature.<br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Plant communities</em></strong><br />
			Weber HE; Moravec J; Theurillat J-P (2000)  International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature. 3rd edition. <em>Journal  of Vegetation Science</em> <strong>11</strong>: 739-768.<br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Prokaryotes (archaea  and bacteria)</em></strong><br />
			Lapage SP; Sneath PHA; Lessel EF; Skerman VDB;  Seeloger HPR; Clark WA (eds) (1992) <em>International Code of Nomenclature of  Bacteria and Satutes of the International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology  and Statutes of the Bacteriology and Applied Microbiology Section of the  International Union of Microbiological Societies. Bacteriological Code (1990  Revision).</em> Washington, DC.: American Society for Microbiology. </p>
		<p><strong><em>Viruses</em></strong><br />
			International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses  (2005) The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature of ICTV.  In: <em>Virus Taxonomy: eighth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy  of Viruses</em> (Fauquet CM; Mayo MA; Maniloff J; Desselberger U; Ball L; eds):  1209-1214. Amsterdam:  Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
	<strong><em><br />
	Zoology</em></strong><br />
		International Commission on Zoological  Nomenclature [Ride WDL; Cogger HG; Dupuis C; Kraus O; Minelli A; Thompson FC;  Tubbs PK (eds)] (1999) 4th edn. London: International Trust for Zoological  Nomenclature.<strong> </strong></p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Selected additional sources'>
		<p><h1>Selected additional sources</h1>
		<p>			Blackwelder RE (1967) <em>Taxonomy: a text and  reference book</em>. New York:  John Wiley &amp; Sons.<br />
			Cowan ST; Hill LR (1978) <em>A Dictionary of  Microbial Taxonomy</em>. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.<br />
			Davis PH; Heywood VH (1963) <em>Principles of  Angiosperm Taxonomy</em>. Edinburgh:  Oliver &amp; Boyd.<br />
			Evenhuis NL (2008) <em>A Compendium of  Zoological Type Nomenclature: a reference source</em>. [Bishop Museum Technical  Report no. 41.] Honolulu:  Bishop Museum Press.<br />
			Frizzell DL (1933) Terminology of types. <em>American  Midland Naturalist</em> <strong>14</strong>: 637-668.<br />
			Gordh G; Headrick DH (2001) <em>A Dictionary of  Entomology</em>. Wallingford:  CABI Publishing.<br />
			Hawksworth DL (1974) <em>Mycologist's Handbook:  an introduction to the principles of taxonomy and nomenclature in the fungi and  lichens.</em> Kew: Commonwealth Mycological  Institute.<br />
			Hawksworth DL (ed.) (1991) <em>Improving the  Stability of Names: needs and options</em>. [Regnum Vegetabile no. 13.] Königstein: Koeltz Scientific Books.<br />
			Hawksworth DL (1994) <em>A Draft Glossary of  Terms used in Bionomenclature</em>. [IUBS Monograph no. 9.] Paris: International Union  of Biological Sciences.<br />
			Howell BF (1929) Definitions of kinds of type  specimens.<em> Bulletin of the Geological Society of America</em> <strong>40</strong>: 219-220.<br />
			Hughes NF (1989) <em>Fossils as Information: new  recording and strata correlation techniques.</em> Cambridge: Cambridge University  Press.<br />
			Jeffrey C (1989) <em>Biological Nomenclature</em>.  3rd edn. London:  Edward Arnold.<br />
			Jirásek  V (1961) Evolution of the proposals of  taxonomical categories for the classification of cultivated plants. <em>Taxon</em> <strong>10</strong>: 34-45.<br />
			McVaugh R; Ross R; Stafleu FA (1968) <em>An  Annotated Glossary of Botanical Nomenclature</em>. [Regnum Vegetabile no. 56.] Utrecht: International  Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature.<br />
			Lincoln R; Boxshall G; Clark  P (2001) <em>A Dictionary  of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. </em>2nd edn. Cambridge;  Cambridge University Press.<br />
			Mayr E; Ashlock PD (1991) <em>Principles of  Systematic Zoology</em>. 2nd edn. New York: McGraw Hill.<br />
			Melville RV (1995) <em>Towards Stability in the  Names of Animals: a history of the International Commission on Zoological  Nomenclatire 1895-1995</em>. London:  International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature.<br />
			Ride WDL; Younès T (eds) (1986) <em>Biological Nomenclature  Today</em>. [IUBS Monograph Series no. 2.] Eynsham: IRL Press.<br />
			Savory T (1970) <em>Animal Taxonomy</em>. London: Heinemann  Educational Books.<br />
			Simpson GC (1961) <em>Principles of Animal  Taxonomy</em>. [Columbia  Biological Series no. 20.] New York:  Columbia University Press.<br />
			Singleton P; Sainsbury D (2001) <em>Dictionary  of Microbiology and Molecular Biology</em>. 3rd edn. Chichester: John Wiley &amp; Sons.<br />
			Stearn WT (1992) <em>Botanical Latin: history,  grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary</em>. 4th edn. Newton  Abbot: David &amp; Charles.<br />
			Styles BT (ed.) (1986) <em>Infraspecific  Classification of Wild and Cultivated Plants</em>. [Systematics Association  Special Volume no. 29.] Oxford:  Clarendon Press.<br />
		Winston JE (1999) <em>Describing Species:  practical taxonomic procedure for biologists.</em> New York: Columbia University  Press.</p>
	</div>
	<div class="section" id='Selected etymological works'>
		<p><h1>Selected etymological works</h1>
		<p>				Baranov A (1971) <em>Basic Latin for Plant  Taxonomists</em>. Lehre: J Cramer<br />
				Brown RW (1956) <em>Composition of Scientific  Words: a manual of methods and a lexicon of materials for the practice of  logotechnics</em>. Revised edn. Washington   DC: Smithsonian Institution  Press.<br />
				Cash EK (1965) <em>A Mycological English-Latin  Glossary.</em> [Mycologia Memoir no. 1.] New    York: Hafner Publishing.<br />
				Gledhill D (2002) <em>The Names of Plants</em>.  3rd edn. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press.<br />
				Jaeger EC (1955) <em>A Source-Book of  Biological Names and Terms</em>. 3rd edn. Springfield, IL:  CC Thomas.<br />
				Nybakken OE (1959) <em>Greek and Latin in  Scientific Terminology</em>. Ames,   IA: Iowa State University Press.<br />
				Stearn WT (1992) <em>Botanical Latin: history,  grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary</em>. 4th edn. Newton  Abbot: David &amp; Charles.<br />
		Thomas VF (2010) <em>Botanical Latin Glossary</em>. <a href="http://www.vfthomas.com/botanicallatinglossary.htm" target="_blank">http://www.vfthomas.com/botanicallatinglossary.htm</a>. V F  Thomas, Southwest Harbor, ME</p>
</div>
	<div class="section" id='Abbreviations'>
			<p><h1>Abbreviations</h1>
			<p>The following abbreviations and conventions are used in the definitions  presented:</p>
				<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="0">
					<tr>
						<td width="8%" valign="top">bio.</td>
						<td width="92%">In the  BioCode.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">bot.</td>
						<td>In  botanical (in many cases also mycological) nomenclature.  </td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top"><em>cfr</em></td>
						<td>Compare with.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top"><em>Code  </em></td>
						<td><em> </em>One of the seven principal international codes of nomenclature (see  above); in the definitions where <em>Code(s)</em> is used, that refers to the  one(s) in the pertinent subject area(s).</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">cult. pl. </td>
						<td> In cultivated plant  nomenclature.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">!</td>
						<td>Flags a term not  considered to have been seriously proposed.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">mycol.</td>
						<td>In mycological  nomenclature alone (which is covered overall by the botanical <em>Code</em>).</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">n.b.</td>
						<td>Note  well; used to emphasize a particularly pertinent comment.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">obsol.</td>
						<td>A formerly used  term, especially one once authorized in a Code, that is now no longer to be  used.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">palaeo.</td>
						<td>In palaeontological  nomenclature (which is ruled on by the pertinent subject <em>Code</em>).</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">phyl. </td>
						<td> In phylogenetic  nomenclature. </td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">phyt.</td>
						<td>In  phytosociological nomenclature.    </td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top"><p>pl.</p></td>
						<td>Plural.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">prok.</td>
						<td>In prokaryote  (archaeal and bacterial) nomenclature.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">prop.</td>
						<td>Proposed, but not  adopted by, the pertinent subject <em>Code</em>.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">q.v. </td>
						<td>Which  see; used to indicate that the entry for the term so annotated should be  consulted.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">unoff.</td>
						<td>Unofficial; i.e. not  used, or formally approved or regulated by, the pertinent subject <em>Code</em>(s).</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">vir.</td>
						<td> In virus (and  viroid) nomenclature.</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td valign="top">zool.</td>
						<td>In zoological  nomenclature.</td>
					</tr>
				</table></div>
</div>